Other habits and traditions that continue to this day

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

The utilisation of animal dung and crop residue as a fertiliser and soil amendment is an ancient practice, dating back to antiquity. In many ancient civilizations, such as ancient Egypt and ancient China, people employed animal dung and crop residue to enhance soil quality and augment crop yields. In ancient Egypt, for instance, people used animal dung as a fertiliser for the soil, deeming it one of the finest natural fertilisers. They also utilized crop residue to improve soil quality and increase crop productivity. In ancient China, people used animal dung and crop residue as a fertiliser and soil amendment, considering it a fundamental fertiliser for enhancing soil quality and augmenting crop yields. In Sudan, the ancient Nubian civilization employed animal dung and crop residue as a fertiliser and soil amendment, regarding it as a natural fertiliser to improve soil quality and increase crop productivity. This ancient practice remains in use today in many parts of the world, where animal dung and crop residue are considered effective natural fertilisers for enhancing soil quality and augmenting crop yields.

The custom of utilising animal dung and crop residue as a fertiliser dates back to the Neolithic era, circa 10,000 years before present. In that epoch, mankind commenced agriculture and employed animal dung to ameliorate soil quality. In ancient Egypt, the utilization of animal dung as a fertiliser was prevalent since approximately 5,000 years before present, during the period of the Old Kingdom (2613-2181 BCE). In ancient China, the employment of animal dung as a fertiliser was widespread since circa 4,000 years before the Common Era, during the era of Shamanic faith (1600-1046 BCE). In Sudan, the ancient Nubian civilization utilized animal dung as a fertiliser since approximately 2,000 years before present, during the reign of the Kingdom of Kush (1070 BCE – 350 CE). This ancient practice has endured unto the present day, wherein animal dung and crop residue are esteemed as efficacious natural fertilisers for enhancing soil quality and augmenting crop yields.

Verily, animal dung and crop residue are employed as a fertiliser in diverse regions of the world, particularly in rural and agricultural areas. In Sudan, for instance, farmers utilise animal dung as a natural fertiliser to enhance soil quality and augment crop yields.

The regions wherein animal dung is utilised as a fertiliser are:

– Rural districts: where beasts are reared and their dung is used as a fertiliser for tillage.

– Agricultural regions: where animal dung is employed to ameliorate soil quality and increase crop productivity.

– Domestic gardens: where people use animal dung as a natural fertiliser to promote plant growth.

The types of animal dung used as a fertiliser are:

– Bovine dung: replete with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

– Galline dung: rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.

– Equine dung: abundant in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

– Ovine dung: endowed with nitrogen and phosphorus.

It is advisable to ensure that animal dung has been analysed and cleaned before it is used as fertiliser so that it does not damage plants or soil.

Sudanese Habits and Traditions: The presence of the zir

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

A so-called zir is a large pottery vessel for storing water and other materials. Local customs and traditions have developed in most parts, if not all, of Sudan, emphasizing the importance of having one or more zirs for storing drinking water. Additionally, the water that seeps out from the bottom of the zir is considered cleaner and is used for drinking by the sick or for making tea for those with a refined taste due to its higher purity.

The zir is well-known to most people, but some, especially the newer generation of Sudanese, particularly city dwellers, may not be familiar with it, as its use has decreased or become rare due to the availability of faster, easier, and more modern alternatives. However, the strongest survives!

The zir has been known in Sudan since ancient times, with evidence found in archaeological excavations – such as the MUAFS excavations between Attab and Ferka and many other missions. It is studied by scholars and is part of ethnographic and folklore studies, as its production is accompanied by stories and legends. It also has various uses in Sudanese customs and cultures, such as in weddings and circumcisions.

Today, we discuss its continuity. During the war in Khartoum, I noticed that the use of the zir had increased. Previously, it had been particularly important in villages, unlike in cities such as Khartoum, where alternative water containers and drinking vessels were available. Altogether, the zir remains the preferred choice in Sudan.

There is a focus on creating a special place for it, whether by building it with green bricks or red bricks, or creating a seat with an iron canopy, known locally as a „Mazira“.

Example of a modern zir.

By chance, I learned a special method for cleaning it, particularly from the green fungi that grow on its exterior due to exposure to air and water seepage, known as „dew“.

Zir vessels before cleaning – note the „dew“ in the lower part.

Firstly, the zir is made by men in the field, but its care and cleaning are the responsibility of women, especially older women.

Despite the various types of zir in terms of size, shape, and color, depending on the materials used, there are also different methods of cleaning and decorating them from one region to another. There is also a preference for using black or red zirs.

In Northern Sudan, both black and red zir are used, but there is a difference in decoration and polishing. The people of the Northern State and the River Nile State prefer to polish and clean the exterior using natural materials, often using red brick for red zir and black charcoal for black zir.

The red brick powder used for zir vessels.

In Dongola and some Nubian regions, people often use red zirs or those with a reddish color, known to specialists, which is determined by the materials used and the firing process. In these regions, the lower part of the zir, which is more prone to green fungi, is painted with a coating, often red or yellow, and has become a distinctive mark of the people of Dongola.

I was fortunate to witness a cleaning process, polishing, and applying a special coating to one of the zir, and I documented the process with photos. The tools and materials used are natural and part of the heritage.

The method of decoration, colouring, and polishing with red brick powder and water.

All of this is done to make the zir look clean and beautiful, and this method is usually used every month or more.

Zir vessels after cleaning.

These are customs, traditions, and tools that are part of the Sudanese heritage, and we hope they will continue for future generations.

Upcoming DiverseNile Seminar: Unravelling Ancient Nubian Beauty

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

I am delighted to announce the next DiverseNile seminar!

Fatima Siddig, a Sudanese PhD student funded by a DAAD Hilde Domin scholarship and based in Münster, will present her recent research on Nov. 25.

The title of her lecture is: Unravelling Ancient Nubian Beauty: A Multi-Analytical Approach: Chemical and Archaeological Study of Kushite Cosmetics

Fatima is one of a new generation of Sudanese scholars applying interdisciplinary methods to their work, and she is truly the future of Sudanese archaeology. In light of the ongoing war in Sudan, I am both proud and grateful that Fatima is able to conduct her vital research here in Germany. Don’t miss her presentation!

First article by DiverseNile available in Arabic

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

I am delighted to announce the first translation of a DiverseNile article into Arabic. Our dear friend and colleague, Elhassan Ahmed, translated the recent article entitled ‚Reconstructing Contact Space Biographies‘. You can find the full article here.

To kill two birds with one stone – making important texts more accessible to Arabic-speaking colleagues, but also alleviating the financial hardship of at least some Sudanese colleagues – the Sudan Cultural Emergency and Relief Fund (SCERF) of the International Society for Nubian Studies has launched a translation initiative. All articles translated to date can be found here: https://nubianstudies.org/maqalat/

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Collegium Aegyptium for their considerable financial support, which has made the translation of our article a reality.

New publication: Establishing a Dialogue

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

I am very happy to announce that a new article by Panos, Hassan, Julia and myself, on integrating evidence from domestic and funerary archaeology has just been published open-access in World Archaeology (https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2025.2567057). The article is part of a special issue on Domestic and funerary archaeologies in dialogue edited by Penny Bickle (University of York), Solène Denis (CNRS) and Stella Souvatzi (University of Thessaly), and I am very much looking forward to seeing the other papers in the issue.

In our paper ‘Establishing a dialogue – Settlement and funerary archaeology in northern Sudan’ we explore ways of combining methodological and interpretative frameworks from mortuary and settlement archaeology. We focus in particular on better understanding social dynamics and cultural entanglements in the Attab-Ferka region in the 2nd and 3rd millennium BC and how these can manifest in the archaeological record. The nature of cultural entanglements can vary considerably at different scales and spheres of society as well as being influenced by a range of internal and external causes, such as a changing environmental and socio-political landscape. By using both mortuary and domestic archaeological data as well as interdisciplinary approaches which take into account the local landscape, the project is striving for a more holistic perspective on the Attab-Ferka region at both the local scale and regional level in the longue durée. 

Kerma and Egyptian New Kingdom domestic and mortuary sites in the Attab-Ferka region, inset map highlights various 2-S-43 sites.

In this article we continue to consider the problematic use of labels in archaeological research, for example ‘Egyptian’ versus ‘Nubian’ by suggesting that ‘compound’ (after Stewart 2011) cultures may be a useful way of thinking about the ‘new’ cultures that can be created when different communities interact. This broadly moves away from some of the problematic connotations or idiosyncrasies of existing terminologies such as hybrid or syncretism. Overall, we hope this new article gives a good overview of many of the areas we are exploring as part of the DiverseNile project, and we will be elaborating on many of them in upcoming publications (including cultural entanglement; settlement patterns/urbanism; scales of analysis).

Reference

Stewart, C. 2011. “Creolization, Hybridity, Syncretism, Mixture.” Portuguese Studies 27 (1): 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1353/port.2011.0007

Museums and Heritage in Sudan

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

by Huda Magzoub Elbashir, October 2025

Opinion of Officials on the Attack, Theft, and Looting of the Sudan National Museum:

Dr. Ghalia Garinabi, Director General of the Sudanese National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), described the incident as a „humanitarian catastrophe“ that poses a significant threat to Sudan’s cultural heritage. She expressed her deep regret over the incident and condemned the looting of the museum.

Details of the Attack and Theft:

  • The museum was subjected to extensive looting and destruction, with over 100,000 artifacts stolen, including gold pieces, jewelry, and valuable historical artifacts.
  • Some of the stolen artifacts are believed to have been smuggled out of Sudan, with some spotted in neighboring countries like South Sudan.
  • The museum suffered significant damage to its infrastructure, including the destruction of laboratories and workshops.

Reactions and Efforts:

  • International Cooperation: Sudanese authorities are working with international organizations to recover the stolen artifacts and hold those responsible accountable.
  • Investigations: Authorities are conducting investigations to identify those responsible and bring them to justice.
  • Awareness: Efforts are being made to raise awareness about the importance of preserving Sudan’s cultural heritage and combating artifact smuggling.

Dr. Ikhlas Abdel Latif, Director of Museums Administration and Head of the Unit for Tracking and Recovering Stolen Artifacts, described the incident as a „great calamity“ and stated that it was a systematic theft by the Rapid Support Forces. She noted that the attackers targeted the most valuable and lightweight artifacts, and destroyed some that they couldn’t carry, reflecting their barbaric treatment of Sudan’s heritage.

Abdel Hai Al-Sawai, Director of the Archaeological Discovery Department at the Sudanese National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), believes that Sudan’s antiquities have been exposed to significant risks due to the war, especially in Khartoum. He emphasized that the National Museum in Khartoum was the most affected, looted, and stolen, as it contains many eras of Sudan’s ancient history, in addition to the warehouses that hold thousands of artifacts from various eras.

Impact of the War on Museums and Antiquities:

  • Destruction of Museums: Many museums and archaeological sites outside the capital were damaged, including the Sultan Ali Dinar Museum in Darfur.
  • Looting of Antiquities: Many priceless historical artifacts were looted from the National Museum in Khartoum, and many other archaeological sites were affected.
  • Assessment and Restoration Efforts: Efforts are underway to assess and evaluate the damage, with plans to restore damaged museums and recover stolen artifacts.

International Condemnation:

  • United Nations Human Rights Office: Condemned the gross human rights violations in Sudan, including attacks on museums and archaeological sites.
  • European Union: Strongly condemned the gross human rights violations in Sudan and called for the protection of cultural heritage and archaeological sites.
  • United States: Condemned the attack on civilians and cultural heritage.

Scorched Ruins and Remnants of the Sultan Ali Dinar Museum in El Fasher city was partially destroyed due to shelling in October 2025. This attack sparked widespread condemnation and was considered by authorities and international organizations as a serious violation of Sudan’s cultural heritage.

The museum housed valuable artifacts and important historical documents, and its destruction is a significant loss to Sudan’s heritage.

The African Center for Justice and Peace Studies expresses its deep concern over the systematic targeting of cultural and historical sites by warring parties in Sudan. The destruction of historical sites by warring parties is a deliberate act aimed at erasing the history of the Sudanese people, particularly in the Darfur region, and attempting to eliminate symbols that unite communities in the region.

Support from Global Museums:

Global museums can provide effective support to the Sudan National Museum through:

  • Technical and Expert Support: Providing experts in archaeology and restoration to assess damage and identify stolen artifacts.
  • Financial Support: Funding projects to restore the museum and recover stolen artifacts.
  • Diplomatic Support: Pressuring governments and international organizations to protect Sudan’s cultural heritage and recover stolen artifacts.
  • Media Support: Raising awareness about the importance of preserving Sudan’s cultural heritage and combating the importance of combating artifact smuggling.

Risks of Climate Change and Projections on Cultural Heritage in Sudan?

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

Autumn Season and its Impact on Antiquities in Sudan

Sudan experiences a desert climate with minimal seasonal variation, but the autumn season can still have an impact on archaeological sites. The effects of climate change and environmental factors can exacerbate the deterioration of ancient structures and artifacts.

Impacts of the Autumn Season on Antiquities in Sudan:

  • Increased Rainfall: Heavy rainfall can cause erosion and damage to archaeological sites, especially those in fragile or unstable conditions.
  • Strong Winds: Strong winds can lead to the degradation of structures and the loss of artifacts.
  • Flooding: Flooding can damage archaeological sites, especially those located near rivers or in low-lying areas.

Conservation Efforts:

  • Site Monitoring: Regular monitoring of archaeological sites to assess the impact of environmental factors and take necessary conservation measures.
  • Risk Assessment: Conducting risk assessments to identify potential threats and develop strategies for mitigation.
  • Community Engagement: Engaging local communities in the conservation and protection of archaeological sites.

Importance of Protecting Sudan’s Cultural Heritage:

Sudan’s cultural heritage is invaluable, and it is essential to protect it from environmental degradation and human impact. Conservation efforts are necessary to preserve the country’s rich history and cultural identity for future generations.

Challenges and Opportunities:

  • Climate Change: Climate change poses a significant threat to Sudan’s cultural heritage, and it is essential to develop strategies to mitigate its impacts.
  • Sustainable Development: Balancing economic development with cultural heritage conservation is crucial to ensure the long-term preservation of Sudan’s archaeological sites.
  • International Cooperatio: International cooperation and support are necessary to support conservation efforts and protect Sudan’s cultural heritage.

Climate change poses a significant threat to cultural heritage in Sudan, as it can lead to the deterioration and erosion of archaeological sites, especially with harsh weather conditions such as heavy rainfall and strong winds. Rising sea levels can also lead to the submersion of coastal heritage sites and erosion of archaeological and architectural structures. Additionally, changes in the ecosystems surrounding heritage sites can affect their ecological balance and further complicate conservation efforts.

Main Impacts of Climate Change on Cultural Heritage in Sudan:

  • Erosion of archaeological sites: Heavy rainfall and strong winds can cause erosion and deterioration of archaeological sites.
  • Rising sea levels: Can lead to the submersion of coastal heritage sites and erosion of archaeological and architectural structures.
  • Changes in surrounding ecosystems: Can affect the ecological balance around heritage sites and complicate conservation efforts.

Efforts to Protect Cultural Heritage in Sudan:

  • Climate risk assessment: Climate risks are assessed for cultural sites to determine necessary protection measures.
  • Emergency plans: Emergency plans are developed to protect heritage sites from climate change impacts.
  • Use of technology: Remote sensing and 3D laser scanning techniques are used to assess the condition of heritage sites and monitor surroundings climate

Environmental changes, floods, and mining pose a greater threat to antiquities than wars!

There are archaeological sites in Sudan that are affected by the environment, especially in the northern regions of Dongola. Some of these sites include:

  • Sai Island Archaeological Site: An island containing tombs, Pharaonic sites, and graves dating back to thousands of years, with recent signs of severe mining activities on the island.
A view from Sai Island.
  • Old Dongola: A historical city containing archaeological sites consisting of palaces, remains of churches, tombs, and domes, considered one of the important cities during the Middle Ages, affected by rising groundwater levels or Nile floods.
  • Other Archaeological Sites in Sudan: Such as Kerma, suffering from the impacts of climate change, especially soil erosion, floods, and landslides.
  • Al-Bajrawiya: These archaeological sites are affected by strong winds and heavy rains, causing erosion to structures and antiquities.
  • Additional Archaeological Sites in the Nile River State and the Northern State: All are affected by climate change, desertification, and environmental degradation.
  • Meroe Archaeological Sites: Affected by climate change and desertification, leading to the deterioration of ancient structures and antiquities.
  • The Royal City of Meroe: All these are important archaeological sites affected by environmental changes, desertification, and environmental degradation.
Situation at the Royal City of Meroe.
One of the temples at the Royal City of Meroe and glimpses of environmental change.

Some sites received attention and archaeological work during the Qataris project to protect Nubian antiquities, but environmental changes were stronger, requiring more serious and urgent attention to preserve them from deterioration and loss. Again, with recent environmental changes in Sudan, these sites, along with newly discovered ones, are affected by climate change, desertification, and environmental degradation, threatening their destruction and the loss of ancient cultural heritage in Sudan.

It’s crucial to note that these archaeological sites require special attention to protect them from deterioration and ensure their continuity for future generations.

Die Melodien der Frösche in Khartum sind einfach wunderbar. Herbst im Sudan

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

The end of autumn in Khartoum brings about changes in nature and the environment, marked by an unusual surge in frog populations.

Sudanese Beliefs, Spirituality, and Interpretations of Frogs

In ancient Sudanese culture, frogs, known in the Nubian language as „Qa’ownja“ or „Qa’wa,“ held significant spiritual and symbolic meaning. During the Meroitic period, the frog was revered as a deity associated with love and rain. An artifact displayed in the geographical exhibit at the National Museum of Sudan depicts a frog near the Nile River, symbolizing its importance.

In traditional Sudanese beliefs and ancient religious practices, the presence of frogs in a place where humans live, especially in homes, has multiple interpretations. The interpretation of frogs in homes varies across cultures, religious beliefs, and spiritual practices. Here are some possible interpretations:

Folk Beliefs:

  1. Bad Luck or Change: In some cultures, the presence of frogs in the home is considered a sign of bad luck or impending change. This may be interpreted as a signal to pay attention to upcoming problems or challenges.
  2. Fertility and Abundance: In other cultures, frogs are seen as symbols of fertility and abundance. Their presence in the home may be interpreted as a sign of good fortune and blessings.

Religious and Spiritual Beliefs:

  1. Spiritual Messages: In some spiritual beliefs, frogs are considered symbols of transformation and spiritual growth. Their presence in the home may be interpreted as a sign of the need for change or spiritual growth.
  2. Negative Energy: Sometimes, frogs are viewed as attracting or absorbing negative energy. Their presence in the home may be interpreted as a sign of negative energy that needs to be cleansed.

Dreams and Personal Interpretations:

  • Dreams: If you dream of frogs in your home, it may symbolize certain emotions or upcoming events in your life. The interpretation of the dream depends on your feelings towards the frogs in the dream and the overall context.
  • Personal Interpretation: The presence of frogs in your home may have personal interpretations based on your experiences and memories. Some people may see frogs as symbols of fun and nature, while others may see them as symbols of anxiety or fear.

In general, the interpretation of frogs in the home depends on the cultural, religious, and personal context of the individual. It is essential to consider your personal feelings and experiences when interpreting these signs.

Next DiverseNile Seminar: Napatan Funerary Amulets

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

I am delighted to announce the upcoming DiverseNile seminar!

Our next speaker is Victoria Arroyo, a PhD candidate in Egyptology at the University of Münster, who has received a scholarship from the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service).

She will be talking about her PhD thesis and the title of her lecture is: ‚Funerary Amulets in the Nile Valley‘. Cultural and Social Interactions Between Kush and Egypt in the Napatan period (c. 750–270 BCE).

I’m really looking forward to this, which promises to offer an updated perspective on the use of funerary amulets during the Napatan era.

Museums, antiquities, heritage, and the ongoing war in Sudan II

Veröffentlicht am von
Antworten

After a long silence, the Sudanese antiquities and heritage, which have been ravaged by destruction, looting, and theft, are celebrating the Ministry of Culture and Information’s approval of international laws and conventions related to the protection of Sudanese heritage from looting, wars, and theft. This news is a beacon of hope that will push forward the protection of heritage in Sudan. The efforts of the state to protect the heritage in Sudan, represented by the antiquities stolen during the war in Khartoum between the Sudanese army and the Rapid Support Forces, are notable. There are several promising signs that this agreement will bring if the state is keen to swiftly implement it.

In this context, I will discuss some aspects related to these agreements, hoping that the international community will provide all possible support. I will review with you some aspects and questions related to the importance of these agreements for Sudan’s antiquities and heritage.

Firstly, what is the benefit of the Cultural Property Convention? And what is the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects? The 1995 UNIDROIT Convention aims to protect cultural heritage by establishing general legal rules for the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects. The importance of this convention lies in:

– Protecting cultural heritage: It contributes to protecting cultural property from theft and smuggling and promotes international cooperation for its recovery.

– Facilitating the return of cultural property: It provides a legal mechanism for the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects, making it easier for countries to recover their cultural heritage.

– Enhancing international cooperation: It encourages cooperation between countries to strengthen the protection of cultural heritage and combat illicit trafficking in cultural property.

– Protecting cultural identity: It contributes to protecting the cultural identity of countries and communities and promoting a sense of belonging and pride in cultural heritage.

– Combating illicit trafficking: It contributes to combating illicit trafficking in cultural property and promoting transparency and accountability in the trade of antiquities and cultural objects.

In general, the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention aims to strengthen the protection of cultural heritage and the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects, and to promote international cooperation in this field.

Secondly, what are the consequences of delaying the implementation of these conventions, especially for the collections of the National Museum? Delaying the implementation of international conventions for the protection of antiquities and heritage in Sudan and the National Museum can lead to several negative consequences, including:

– Increased looting and theft: Delaying the necessary measures to protect antiquities and heritage can increase the chances of looting and theft of museums and archaeological sites, as happened in the National Museum in Khartoum, where many rare artifacts were looted and stolen.

– Destruction of cultural heritage: Delaying the protection of antiquities and heritage can lead to their complete destruction, especially in the context of armed conflicts and wars, where archaeological sites and museums are subjected to bombardment and destruction.

– Loss of cultural identity: Cultural heritage plays a significant role in defining the identity of peoples, and losing it can lead to a national identity crisis.

– Difficulty in recovering stolen artifacts: The longer the delay between the theft of artifacts and the necessary measures to recover them, the more difficult it becomes to recover them, especially if they are sold on the global market or smuggled out of the country.

– Impact on scientific research: Losing cultural heritage and antiquities can make it difficult to conduct scientific research and archaeological studies, affecting our understanding of Sudanese history and culture.

– Negative impact on tourism: Cultural heritage and antiquities play a significant role in attracting tourists, and losing or destroying them can negatively impact the tourism sector in Sudan.

Examples of destruction include:

– The National Museum in Khartoum: It was looted and raided, and trucks loaded with artifacts left the museum, resulting in the loss of important artifacts.

– Nyala Museum: All the properties and museum collections were looted.

– The Khalifa Abdallah Museum: It was looted and parts of the building were destroyed.

– The Naga’a and Musawwarat area: It was attacked by the Rapid Support Forces, and videos were filmed inside the archaeological sites.

– Jebel Barkal: A World Heritage site that faces significant challenges due to urban and agricultural expansion, which could lead to its removal from the list.

Efforts to protect heritage include:

– The National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums: It works to recover stolen artifacts and track them through Interpol and international security institutions.

– UNESCO: It tries to coordinate efforts to protect Sudanese heritage by enhancing cooperation with local and international organizations.

– Civil society organizations: They play a significant role in highlighting the importance of antiquities and heritage and advocating for their return.

Thirdly, how can international laws and conventions be applied to protect Sudanese heritage, such as what was looted from the National Museum in Khartoum? To protect heritage in Sudan, international laws are applied through several mechanisms:

– UNESCO’s role: UNESCO works to promote the protection of cultural heritage in Sudan, especially after reports of looting and destruction of museums and archaeological sites. The organization has sounded the alarm and expressed deep concern about these actions.

– International cooperation: UNESCO encourages the international community to make joint efforts to protect Sudanese cultural heritage, including preventing the illicit trafficking of antiquities and cultural objects.

– Training and awareness: UNESCO provides training courses to enhance the capabilities of local authorities in the field of cultural heritage protection, in addition to raising public awareness about the importance of preserving heritage.

– Damage assessment: UNESCO works to assess the damage to archaeological sites and heritage in Sudan, including using satellite images to identify affected sites.

– Support for artists and local communities: UNESCO provides support to artists and local communities in Sudan through the establishment of art centers and cultural programs that help pre serve cultural heritage.

Regarding the National Museum in Khartoum as an example, several measures can be taken to protect the looted heritage, including:

– Recovery of stolen artifacts: Working to recover stolen artifacts from the National Museum and other museums in Sudan.

– Preventing illicit trafficking: Working to prevent the illicit trafficking of Sudanese antiquities and cultural objects through cooperation with local and international authorities.

– Documenting damage: Documenting the damage to the National Museum and other archaeological sites in Sudan to present it to the relevant authorities to take necessary measures.

The Ministry of Culture’s approval of international conventions related to the protection of Sudanese heritage is a positive step towards protecting heritage in Sudan, especially in the face of challenges posed by wars and conflicts.