Archiv der Kategorie: Sudan

Museums and Heritage in Sudan

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by Huda Magzoub Elbashir, October 2025

Opinion of Officials on the Attack, Theft, and Looting of the Sudan National Museum:

Dr. Ghalia Garinabi, Director General of the Sudanese National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), described the incident as a „humanitarian catastrophe“ that poses a significant threat to Sudan’s cultural heritage. She expressed her deep regret over the incident and condemned the looting of the museum.

Details of the Attack and Theft:

  • The museum was subjected to extensive looting and destruction, with over 100,000 artifacts stolen, including gold pieces, jewelry, and valuable historical artifacts.
  • Some of the stolen artifacts are believed to have been smuggled out of Sudan, with some spotted in neighboring countries like South Sudan.
  • The museum suffered significant damage to its infrastructure, including the destruction of laboratories and workshops.

Reactions and Efforts:

  • International Cooperation: Sudanese authorities are working with international organizations to recover the stolen artifacts and hold those responsible accountable.
  • Investigations: Authorities are conducting investigations to identify those responsible and bring them to justice.
  • Awareness: Efforts are being made to raise awareness about the importance of preserving Sudan’s cultural heritage and combating artifact smuggling.

Dr. Ikhlas Abdel Latif, Director of Museums Administration and Head of the Unit for Tracking and Recovering Stolen Artifacts, described the incident as a „great calamity“ and stated that it was a systematic theft by the Rapid Support Forces. She noted that the attackers targeted the most valuable and lightweight artifacts, and destroyed some that they couldn’t carry, reflecting their barbaric treatment of Sudan’s heritage.

Abdel Hai Al-Sawai, Director of the Archaeological Discovery Department at the Sudanese National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), believes that Sudan’s antiquities have been exposed to significant risks due to the war, especially in Khartoum. He emphasized that the National Museum in Khartoum was the most affected, looted, and stolen, as it contains many eras of Sudan’s ancient history, in addition to the warehouses that hold thousands of artifacts from various eras.

Impact of the War on Museums and Antiquities:

  • Destruction of Museums: Many museums and archaeological sites outside the capital were damaged, including the Sultan Ali Dinar Museum in Darfur.
  • Looting of Antiquities: Many priceless historical artifacts were looted from the National Museum in Khartoum, and many other archaeological sites were affected.
  • Assessment and Restoration Efforts: Efforts are underway to assess and evaluate the damage, with plans to restore damaged museums and recover stolen artifacts.

International Condemnation:

  • United Nations Human Rights Office: Condemned the gross human rights violations in Sudan, including attacks on museums and archaeological sites.
  • European Union: Strongly condemned the gross human rights violations in Sudan and called for the protection of cultural heritage and archaeological sites.
  • United States: Condemned the attack on civilians and cultural heritage.

Scorched Ruins and Remnants of the Sultan Ali Dinar Museum in El Fasher city was partially destroyed due to shelling in October 2025. This attack sparked widespread condemnation and was considered by authorities and international organizations as a serious violation of Sudan’s cultural heritage.

The museum housed valuable artifacts and important historical documents, and its destruction is a significant loss to Sudan’s heritage.

The African Center for Justice and Peace Studies expresses its deep concern over the systematic targeting of cultural and historical sites by warring parties in Sudan. The destruction of historical sites by warring parties is a deliberate act aimed at erasing the history of the Sudanese people, particularly in the Darfur region, and attempting to eliminate symbols that unite communities in the region.

Support from Global Museums:

Global museums can provide effective support to the Sudan National Museum through:

  • Technical and Expert Support: Providing experts in archaeology and restoration to assess damage and identify stolen artifacts.
  • Financial Support: Funding projects to restore the museum and recover stolen artifacts.
  • Diplomatic Support: Pressuring governments and international organizations to protect Sudan’s cultural heritage and recover stolen artifacts.
  • Media Support: Raising awareness about the importance of preserving Sudan’s cultural heritage and combating the importance of combating artifact smuggling.

Risks of Climate Change and Projections on Cultural Heritage in Sudan?

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Autumn Season and its Impact on Antiquities in Sudan

Sudan experiences a desert climate with minimal seasonal variation, but the autumn season can still have an impact on archaeological sites. The effects of climate change and environmental factors can exacerbate the deterioration of ancient structures and artifacts.

Impacts of the Autumn Season on Antiquities in Sudan:

  • Increased Rainfall: Heavy rainfall can cause erosion and damage to archaeological sites, especially those in fragile or unstable conditions.
  • Strong Winds: Strong winds can lead to the degradation of structures and the loss of artifacts.
  • Flooding: Flooding can damage archaeological sites, especially those located near rivers or in low-lying areas.

Conservation Efforts:

  • Site Monitoring: Regular monitoring of archaeological sites to assess the impact of environmental factors and take necessary conservation measures.
  • Risk Assessment: Conducting risk assessments to identify potential threats and develop strategies for mitigation.
  • Community Engagement: Engaging local communities in the conservation and protection of archaeological sites.

Importance of Protecting Sudan’s Cultural Heritage:

Sudan’s cultural heritage is invaluable, and it is essential to protect it from environmental degradation and human impact. Conservation efforts are necessary to preserve the country’s rich history and cultural identity for future generations.

Challenges and Opportunities:

  • Climate Change: Climate change poses a significant threat to Sudan’s cultural heritage, and it is essential to develop strategies to mitigate its impacts.
  • Sustainable Development: Balancing economic development with cultural heritage conservation is crucial to ensure the long-term preservation of Sudan’s archaeological sites.
  • International Cooperatio: International cooperation and support are necessary to support conservation efforts and protect Sudan’s cultural heritage.

Climate change poses a significant threat to cultural heritage in Sudan, as it can lead to the deterioration and erosion of archaeological sites, especially with harsh weather conditions such as heavy rainfall and strong winds. Rising sea levels can also lead to the submersion of coastal heritage sites and erosion of archaeological and architectural structures. Additionally, changes in the ecosystems surrounding heritage sites can affect their ecological balance and further complicate conservation efforts.

Main Impacts of Climate Change on Cultural Heritage in Sudan:

  • Erosion of archaeological sites: Heavy rainfall and strong winds can cause erosion and deterioration of archaeological sites.
  • Rising sea levels: Can lead to the submersion of coastal heritage sites and erosion of archaeological and architectural structures.
  • Changes in surrounding ecosystems: Can affect the ecological balance around heritage sites and complicate conservation efforts.

Efforts to Protect Cultural Heritage in Sudan:

  • Climate risk assessment: Climate risks are assessed for cultural sites to determine necessary protection measures.
  • Emergency plans: Emergency plans are developed to protect heritage sites from climate change impacts.
  • Use of technology: Remote sensing and 3D laser scanning techniques are used to assess the condition of heritage sites and monitor surroundings climate

Environmental changes, floods, and mining pose a greater threat to antiquities than wars!

There are archaeological sites in Sudan that are affected by the environment, especially in the northern regions of Dongola. Some of these sites include:

  • Sai Island Archaeological Site: An island containing tombs, Pharaonic sites, and graves dating back to thousands of years, with recent signs of severe mining activities on the island.
A view from Sai Island.
  • Old Dongola: A historical city containing archaeological sites consisting of palaces, remains of churches, tombs, and domes, considered one of the important cities during the Middle Ages, affected by rising groundwater levels or Nile floods.
  • Other Archaeological Sites in Sudan: Such as Kerma, suffering from the impacts of climate change, especially soil erosion, floods, and landslides.
  • Al-Bajrawiya: These archaeological sites are affected by strong winds and heavy rains, causing erosion to structures and antiquities.
  • Additional Archaeological Sites in the Nile River State and the Northern State: All are affected by climate change, desertification, and environmental degradation.
  • Meroe Archaeological Sites: Affected by climate change and desertification, leading to the deterioration of ancient structures and antiquities.
  • The Royal City of Meroe: All these are important archaeological sites affected by environmental changes, desertification, and environmental degradation.
Situation at the Royal City of Meroe.
One of the temples at the Royal City of Meroe and glimpses of environmental change.

Some sites received attention and archaeological work during the Qataris project to protect Nubian antiquities, but environmental changes were stronger, requiring more serious and urgent attention to preserve them from deterioration and loss. Again, with recent environmental changes in Sudan, these sites, along with newly discovered ones, are affected by climate change, desertification, and environmental degradation, threatening their destruction and the loss of ancient cultural heritage in Sudan.

It’s crucial to note that these archaeological sites require special attention to protect them from deterioration and ensure their continuity for future generations.

Die Melodien der Frösche in Khartum sind einfach wunderbar. Herbst im Sudan

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The end of autumn in Khartoum brings about changes in nature and the environment, marked by an unusual surge in frog populations.

Sudanese Beliefs, Spirituality, and Interpretations of Frogs

In ancient Sudanese culture, frogs, known in the Nubian language as „Qa’ownja“ or „Qa’wa,“ held significant spiritual and symbolic meaning. During the Meroitic period, the frog was revered as a deity associated with love and rain. An artifact displayed in the geographical exhibit at the National Museum of Sudan depicts a frog near the Nile River, symbolizing its importance.

In traditional Sudanese beliefs and ancient religious practices, the presence of frogs in a place where humans live, especially in homes, has multiple interpretations. The interpretation of frogs in homes varies across cultures, religious beliefs, and spiritual practices. Here are some possible interpretations:

Folk Beliefs:

  1. Bad Luck or Change: In some cultures, the presence of frogs in the home is considered a sign of bad luck or impending change. This may be interpreted as a signal to pay attention to upcoming problems or challenges.
  2. Fertility and Abundance: In other cultures, frogs are seen as symbols of fertility and abundance. Their presence in the home may be interpreted as a sign of good fortune and blessings.

Religious and Spiritual Beliefs:

  1. Spiritual Messages: In some spiritual beliefs, frogs are considered symbols of transformation and spiritual growth. Their presence in the home may be interpreted as a sign of the need for change or spiritual growth.
  2. Negative Energy: Sometimes, frogs are viewed as attracting or absorbing negative energy. Their presence in the home may be interpreted as a sign of negative energy that needs to be cleansed.

Dreams and Personal Interpretations:

  • Dreams: If you dream of frogs in your home, it may symbolize certain emotions or upcoming events in your life. The interpretation of the dream depends on your feelings towards the frogs in the dream and the overall context.
  • Personal Interpretation: The presence of frogs in your home may have personal interpretations based on your experiences and memories. Some people may see frogs as symbols of fun and nature, while others may see them as symbols of anxiety or fear.

In general, the interpretation of frogs in the home depends on the cultural, religious, and personal context of the individual. It is essential to consider your personal feelings and experiences when interpreting these signs.

Next DiverseNile Seminar: Napatan Funerary Amulets

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I am delighted to announce the upcoming DiverseNile seminar!

Our next speaker is Victoria Arroyo, a PhD candidate in Egyptology at the University of Münster, who has received a scholarship from the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service).

She will be talking about her PhD thesis and the title of her lecture is: ‚Funerary Amulets in the Nile Valley‘. Cultural and Social Interactions Between Kush and Egypt in the Napatan period (c. 750–270 BCE).

I’m really looking forward to this, which promises to offer an updated perspective on the use of funerary amulets during the Napatan era.

Museums, antiquities, heritage, and the ongoing war in Sudan II

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After a long silence, the Sudanese antiquities and heritage, which have been ravaged by destruction, looting, and theft, are celebrating the Ministry of Culture and Information’s approval of international laws and conventions related to the protection of Sudanese heritage from looting, wars, and theft. This news is a beacon of hope that will push forward the protection of heritage in Sudan. The efforts of the state to protect the heritage in Sudan, represented by the antiquities stolen during the war in Khartoum between the Sudanese army and the Rapid Support Forces, are notable. There are several promising signs that this agreement will bring if the state is keen to swiftly implement it.

In this context, I will discuss some aspects related to these agreements, hoping that the international community will provide all possible support. I will review with you some aspects and questions related to the importance of these agreements for Sudan’s antiquities and heritage.

Firstly, what is the benefit of the Cultural Property Convention? And what is the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects? The 1995 UNIDROIT Convention aims to protect cultural heritage by establishing general legal rules for the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects. The importance of this convention lies in:

– Protecting cultural heritage: It contributes to protecting cultural property from theft and smuggling and promotes international cooperation for its recovery.

– Facilitating the return of cultural property: It provides a legal mechanism for the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects, making it easier for countries to recover their cultural heritage.

– Enhancing international cooperation: It encourages cooperation between countries to strengthen the protection of cultural heritage and combat illicit trafficking in cultural property.

– Protecting cultural identity: It contributes to protecting the cultural identity of countries and communities and promoting a sense of belonging and pride in cultural heritage.

– Combating illicit trafficking: It contributes to combating illicit trafficking in cultural property and promoting transparency and accountability in the trade of antiquities and cultural objects.

In general, the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention aims to strengthen the protection of cultural heritage and the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects, and to promote international cooperation in this field.

Secondly, what are the consequences of delaying the implementation of these conventions, especially for the collections of the National Museum? Delaying the implementation of international conventions for the protection of antiquities and heritage in Sudan and the National Museum can lead to several negative consequences, including:

– Increased looting and theft: Delaying the necessary measures to protect antiquities and heritage can increase the chances of looting and theft of museums and archaeological sites, as happened in the National Museum in Khartoum, where many rare artifacts were looted and stolen.

– Destruction of cultural heritage: Delaying the protection of antiquities and heritage can lead to their complete destruction, especially in the context of armed conflicts and wars, where archaeological sites and museums are subjected to bombardment and destruction.

– Loss of cultural identity: Cultural heritage plays a significant role in defining the identity of peoples, and losing it can lead to a national identity crisis.

– Difficulty in recovering stolen artifacts: The longer the delay between the theft of artifacts and the necessary measures to recover them, the more difficult it becomes to recover them, especially if they are sold on the global market or smuggled out of the country.

– Impact on scientific research: Losing cultural heritage and antiquities can make it difficult to conduct scientific research and archaeological studies, affecting our understanding of Sudanese history and culture.

– Negative impact on tourism: Cultural heritage and antiquities play a significant role in attracting tourists, and losing or destroying them can negatively impact the tourism sector in Sudan.

Examples of destruction include:

– The National Museum in Khartoum: It was looted and raided, and trucks loaded with artifacts left the museum, resulting in the loss of important artifacts.

– Nyala Museum: All the properties and museum collections were looted.

– The Khalifa Abdallah Museum: It was looted and parts of the building were destroyed.

– The Naga’a and Musawwarat area: It was attacked by the Rapid Support Forces, and videos were filmed inside the archaeological sites.

– Jebel Barkal: A World Heritage site that faces significant challenges due to urban and agricultural expansion, which could lead to its removal from the list.

Efforts to protect heritage include:

– The National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums: It works to recover stolen artifacts and track them through Interpol and international security institutions.

– UNESCO: It tries to coordinate efforts to protect Sudanese heritage by enhancing cooperation with local and international organizations.

– Civil society organizations: They play a significant role in highlighting the importance of antiquities and heritage and advocating for their return.

Thirdly, how can international laws and conventions be applied to protect Sudanese heritage, such as what was looted from the National Museum in Khartoum? To protect heritage in Sudan, international laws are applied through several mechanisms:

– UNESCO’s role: UNESCO works to promote the protection of cultural heritage in Sudan, especially after reports of looting and destruction of museums and archaeological sites. The organization has sounded the alarm and expressed deep concern about these actions.

– International cooperation: UNESCO encourages the international community to make joint efforts to protect Sudanese cultural heritage, including preventing the illicit trafficking of antiquities and cultural objects.

– Training and awareness: UNESCO provides training courses to enhance the capabilities of local authorities in the field of cultural heritage protection, in addition to raising public awareness about the importance of preserving heritage.

– Damage assessment: UNESCO works to assess the damage to archaeological sites and heritage in Sudan, including using satellite images to identify affected sites.

– Support for artists and local communities: UNESCO provides support to artists and local communities in Sudan through the establishment of art centers and cultural programs that help pre serve cultural heritage.

Regarding the National Museum in Khartoum as an example, several measures can be taken to protect the looted heritage, including:

– Recovery of stolen artifacts: Working to recover stolen artifacts from the National Museum and other museums in Sudan.

– Preventing illicit trafficking: Working to prevent the illicit trafficking of Sudanese antiquities and cultural objects through cooperation with local and international authorities.

– Documenting damage: Documenting the damage to the National Museum and other archaeological sites in Sudan to present it to the relevant authorities to take necessary measures.

The Ministry of Culture’s approval of international conventions related to the protection of Sudanese heritage is a positive step towards protecting heritage in Sudan, especially in the face of challenges posed by wars and conflicts.

New publication: Perspectives on the post-colonial period in the Attab to Ferka region

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Within the DiverseNile project, we focus on developments and dynamics in the Bronze Age, particularly in the Late Bronze Age. The collapse of the Late Bronze Age is also a key consideration here, and I have recently revisited Post New Kingdom evidence from the MUAFS concession.

I am delighted that a publication is now available. In this new article (Budka 2025), I have attempted to shed new light on an old topic. In recent decades, the concept of a ‘Dark Age’ in ancient Sudan at the beginning of the first millennium BCE has increasingly been questioned within Nubian archaeology. This is primarily due to new archaeological discoveries at urban sites such as Tombos and Amara West, as well as new theoretical approaches that have emerged since the post-colonial shift. My recently published study aims to demonstrate that remote sensing, surveying and excavations in the Attab to Ferka region of Sudan have also yielded significant evidence of sustained habitation following the termination of Egyptian colonial rule over Nubia. Studies of settlement patterns and pottery, in particular, enrich our understanding of people’s lives between 1070 and 750 BCE, allowing us to shed light on dynamic processes, local forms of resilience and innovation.

This new understanding of the resilience of communities after the collapse of colonial Nubia under Egyptian rule enables a more nuanced interpretation of the development of the Napatan Empire and challenges the conventional concept of secondary states.

The Attab to Ferka case study shows that marginalised regions and communities made a significant contribution to cultural dynamics and achievements in Sudan during the first millennium BCE.

I’m very much looking forward to receiving feedback on this discussion and my theory!

Reference

Budka, J. 2025. The End of the Egyptian New Kingdom in Colonial Nubia: New Perspectives on Sociocultural Transformations in the Middle Nile. Humans. 2025; 5(4):26. https://doi.org/10.3390/humans5040026

Museums, antiquities, heritage, and the ongoing war in Sudan

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By Mrs. Huda Magzoub Al-Bashir, Senior Curator of the Sudan National Museum, Khartoum (status: 14th Oct. 2025)

Mechanisms for protecting museums and antiquities in Sudan

The mechanisms for protecting museums and antiquities in Sudan are divided into two parts:

Firstly: The mechanism for protecting the building with its contents. This is further divided into two parts in terms of importance:

1. Archaeological, historical, and heritage buildings, where preservation is more important and requires greater care and caution. This also includes museums and field museums.

2. Museum collections, archaeological, historical, and heritage collections, whose preservation depends on the preservation of the building in which they are displayed, after careful selection of the site, method, and materials of construction, and the importance and concern of the state in doing so.

Secondly: The state’s mechanism for paying attention to museums, antiquities, and heritage, as a symbol of national sovereignty and identity, and any negative interference with it requires swift and necessary response.

Prior planning:

Establishing a museum under state sponsorship requires prior planning to protect it from internal and external threats and to adopt a sound and effective method for preserving it.

Mechanism based on supporting national security awareness to protect antiquities and museums and the right to swift intervention through those in charge of managing museums, antiquities, and heritage in Sudan, by following pre-planned methods to protect archaeological collections in museums and rescue them to safe areas or routes.

Mechanism for preserving museum collections:

This mechanism is the primary work mechanism in this field and is represented by:

– Museum collections themselves, in terms of collecting, restoring, documenting, displaying, publishing, preserving, and making copies of them.

– In this context, when feeling insecure, relying on the experiences of some countries that have previously preserved the originals of collections, antiquities, and artifacts in safe places and displayed copies of them to avoid theft or attacks, even if it requires returning them to the ground or to secret storage until safety is ensured.

Insurance mechanism through security agencies recognized and approved by the state to protect museums, antiquities, and heritage in Sudan.

These security agencies must receive adequate training to qualify them to preserve and protect collections and their locations, including museums.

Armed defense mechanism:

This mechanism is only allowed to be used in case of an attack on museums or their contents. It requires a deadly defense by specialized agencies to do this work and make the security of museum facilities part of national security.

Avoiding exposure of archaeological museums and their heritage to looting:

To avoid exposure of museums with rare archaeological collections to looting, especially in cases of armed threat, requires prior efforts based on:

– The state’s interest in its heritage and collections, whose loss would affect the state’s dignity, strength, and prestige.

– Several aspects and methods can be followed to avoid exposure of museums, antiquities, and museum collections to looting, theft, and aggression:

    1. Increasing and developing insurance and its methods, according to modern techniques of theft, and benefiting from the experiences of other countries.

    2. Addressing and cutting off corruption in all aspects related to the management of museums, antiquities, and heritage in Sudan.

    3. Financial preparedness can play an important role in avoiding exposure of museums to looting, by providing the necessary resources for protection and security.

    4. Working continuously to raise cultural awareness of the importance of museums, especially among security agencies, and instilling a sense of national duty to defend this heritage.

    5. Seeking international cooperation and assistance from organizations concerned with protecting museums, antiquities, and heritage worldwide.

    6. Establishing laws and deterrent penalties that must be put in place in agreement with the state and adopted internationally in case of exposure of museums, antiquities, and national heritage to looting, especially by armed parties.

State efforts to safeguard cultural heritage: The war in Sudan and the protection of antiquities

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On Tuesday, October 14, 2025, the Council of Ministers approved a number of international agreements for the Ministry of Culture, Information, and Tourism. This was considered a historic event due to the long wait for these agreements to be reviewed by the Council. The approved agreements include:

1. Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970).

2. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001).

3. UNIDROIT  „Institut international pour l’unification du droit privé“.    Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (1995).

Additionally, the Council approved several memoranda of understanding between the Ministry of Culture, Information, and Tourism and its counterparts in China and Russia, including:

1. Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Culture, Information, and Tourism of Sudan and the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation on cooperation in the field of culture.

Archaeology in the Gezira Reach: Forthcoming DiverseNile Seminar

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As the summer season draws to a close, it is also the case that the short hiatus from the DiverseNile Seminar is coming to an end. It is with great pleasure that I announce the forthcoming DiverseNile Seminar, scheduled to take place on 2 September, presented by Mohammed Alfatih Hayati.

Mohammed is currently employed as an Assistant Professor in Archaeology at the Department of Archaeology of the University of Khartoum in Sudan. His particular area of expertise is the Later prehistory (Mesolithic-Neolithic) of Sudan. Mohammed was awarded his PhD in Archaeology from the University of Khartoum in 2016. He is a member of numerous archaeological field projects in Sudan.

The subject of Mohammed’s presentation is „Archaeology in the Gezira Reach. Current State and Future Challenges“. In the context of the ongoing war in Sudan, it is imperative to consider the impact on both the Sudanese people and the nation’s substantial cultural heritage and rich archaeological sites. Current assessments and future challenges pertaining to significant archaeological regions, such as the Gezira, must be addressed in order to formulate effective strategies for the preservation and protection of these invaluable assets.

I’m very grateful to Mohammed for speaking in our Seminar Series and I’m excited to hear his update about archaeology in the Gezira Reach. I hope many of you will be able to join!

Fuelled with inspiration: back from SAfA 2025

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Conferences often provide plenty of new ideas and social and scientific encounters, as well as fresh input. This was exactly the case last week when the DiverseNile team participated in the SAfA 2025 conference.

The 27th biennial meeting of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists (SAfA 2025) took place at the University of the Algarve in Faro, Portugal, from 21 to 26 July 2025. The venue was lovely, Faro is a beautiful place to visit in the summer. The meeting was a great success thanks to the excellent organisation and rich programme, which included excellent keynote speakers and a highly inspiring plenary event.

Alongside Elena Garcea and Giulia D’Ercole, I organised a session titled „Investigating settlements versus cemeteries. Competing or complementing interests? A View from Sudan“.

We considered this session to be relevant for the following reasons:

Firstly, there are some general aspects to consider. Throughout history, research in Sudan has clearly focused more on burials than on settlements. Cemeteries are considered the most significant social units, providing vital insights for archaeological interpretation and the reconstruction of social, economic, and gender patterns. Ideal case studies are those that include both settlements and cemeteries, although these are often not contemporary with each other.

Furthermore, there are also some personal reasons for organising this session. The three of us have worked on Sai Island and developed a longue durée approach that considers both settlements and tombs. My current DiverseNile project clearly links to this, combining an assessment of domestic and mortuary sites (building on what we have already done during the AcrossBorders project on Sai Island).

Me introducing the theme of the session (photo: H. Aglan).

During our session, an impressive line-up of speakers (including our Sudanese friends and colleagues Ahmed Nassr and Mohamed Bashir) presented the various methodological and theoretical aspects, as well as the challenges and opportunities, of this field of study. Drawing on case studies from different regions of ancient Sudan, particularly the Middle Nile Valley, the Jezira plain and the hinterlands, the subject was explored in depth.

Case studies from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Meroitic, Post-Meroitic and Medieval periods were presented. We also discussed social patterns and cultural behaviours throughout history. This allowed us to link the assessment of settlement patterns with burial customs.

I am particularly pleased that Hassan Aglan discussed the relevance of the Kerma cemeteries within the MUAFS concession (highlightening our work at GiE 003), and that Chloe Ward presented innovative ideas regarding settlement patterns within the same area.

To conclude, our perspective on the topic is informed by observations from various periods and regions of Sudan. The session addressed the past, present and future of investigating settlements and cemeteries, an area in which much remains to be done.

We would like to thank all of our speakers, all participants and the organisers of SAfA 2025 again for now. Personally, I am already looking forward to the next meeting in 2027.